Safeguarding Uranium Production and ExportConventional and Non-Conventional Resources

All nuclear material in both civil and military applications originated at some point from uranium mining and production; followed by various processing steps to purify and condition the uranium for use. It is clear that the most robust of controls must be on the stages of the nuclear fuel cycle where fissile material suitable for the development of a nuclear explosive device can be produced. Controls at this stage of the nuclear fuel cycle are essential to maintaining international confidence in the compliance of states with their nonproliferation commitments. But what are the appropriate levels of control at the very start of the fuel cycle, i.e., uranium mining and production? This paper will consider this question both from the perspective of IAEA safeguards and of national regulatory controls on this industry.